Air pollution and its multifaceted effects on insect pollinators: A review

Hollens-Kuhr, H; Gathof, A.K.; Grossmann, A.J.; Buchholz, S

Abstract

Air pollution poses a serious threat to biodiversity, ecosystem functioning and agricultural productivity, with pollinators being particularly vulnerable. Despite regulatory efforts, harmful pollutants like ozone, particulate matter and nitrogen oxides remain at high levels, affecting both human health and ecological processes, especially plant-pollinator interactions. This systematic review examines 73 empirical studies on how air pollution impacts pollinators in three key areas: plant-pollinator interactions, reproductive success and fitness and flight performance. Evidence shows that pollutants impair floral signal perception, foraging behaviour, reproduction, gene expression, survival and flight efficiency, though research is largely limited to ozone and a few pollinator species such as honey bees and bumblebees. The review identifies major gaps—especially regarding other pollutants, diverse taxa, long-term and field-based studies—and calls for integrative, multi-species research to protect pollinators, biodiversity and global food security.